The Making of the Rock: sources
(one reference per line, ordered by key as in docs/sources.md)

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Bosence, D.W.J., Wood, J.L., Rose, E.P.F. & Qing, H. (2000). Low- and high-frequency sea-level changes control peritidal carbonate cycles, facies and dolomitization in the Rock of Gibraltar (Early Jurassic, Iberian Peninsula). Journal of the Geological Society 157(1), 61–74. https://doi.org/10.1144/jgs.157.1.61
BouDagher-Fadel, M.K., Rose, E.P.F., Bosence, D.W.J. & Lord, A.R. (2001). Lower Jurassic foraminifera and calcified microflora from Gibraltar, western Mediterranean. Palaeontology 44(4), 601–621. https://www.palass.org/node/2545
Cáceres, L.M., Rodríguez Vidal, J., Abad, M., Ruiz, F., Finlayson, C., Finlayson, G., Fa, D. & Muñiz, F. (2013). Modelo de construcción de dunas topográficas pleistocenas en la costa oriental de Gibraltar. In: El Cuaternario Ibérico: Investigación en el s. XXI, AEQUA, 155–158.
Callède, J., Cochonneau, G., Ronchail, J., Alves, F.V., Guyot, J.-L., Guimarães, V.S. & De Oliveira, E. (2010). Les apports en eau de l’Amazone à l’océan Atlantique. Revue des sciences de l’eau 23(3), 247–273. https://doi.org/10.7202/044688ar
Capella, W., Spakman, W., van Hinsbergen, D.J.J., Chertova, M.V. & Krijgsman, W. (2020). Mantle resistance against Gibraltar slab dragging as a key cause of the Messinian Salinity Crisis. Terra Nova 32(2), 141–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/ter.12442
Carrión, J.S., Finlayson, C. et al. (2008). A coastal reservoir of biodiversity for Upper Pleistocene human populations: palaeoecological investigations in Gorham's Cave (Gibraltar) in the context of the Iberian Peninsula. Quaternary Science Reviews 27(23–24), 2118–2135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.08.016
Chertova, M.V., Spakman, W., Geenen, T., van den Berg, A.P. & van Hinsbergen, D.J.J. (2014). Underpinning tectonic reconstructions of the western Mediterranean region with dynamic slab evolution from 3-D numerical modeling. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 119(7), 5876–5902. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JB011150
Clark, P.U., Dyke, A.S., Shakun, J.D. et al. (2009). The Last Glacial Maximum. Science 325, 710–714. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1172873
DeMets, C., Gordon, R.G. & Argus, D.F. (2010). Geologically current plate motions. Geophysical Journal International 181, 1–80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2009.04491.x
Durand-Delga, M., Gardin, S., Esteras, M. & Paquet, H. (2005). Le domaine Tariquide (arc de Gibraltar, Espagne et Maroc) : succession sédimentaire et événements structuraux au Lias et au Dogger. Comptes Rendus Geoscience 337(8), 787–798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2005.03.009
Durand-Delga, M., Esteras, M. & Olivier, P. (2007). Los «Taríquides» (Arco de Gibraltar): problemas estructurales, paleogeográficos y consideración histórica. Revista de la Sociedad Geológica de España 20(3–4), 119–134. https://sge.usal.es/archivos/REV/20(3-4)/Art01.pdf
Estrada, F. et al. (2011). Impact of pulsed Atlantic water inflow into the Alboran Basin at the time of the Zanclean flooding. Geo-Marine Letters 31, 361–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00367-011-0249-8
Faccenna, C., Piromallo, C., Crespo-Blanc, A., Jolivet, L. & Rossetti, F. (2004). Lateral slab deformation and the origin of the western Mediterranean arcs. Tectonics 23, TC1012. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002TC001488
Finlayson, C. et al. (2006). Late survival of Neanderthals at the southernmost extreme of Europe. Nature 443, 850–853. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05195
Flecker, R. et al. (2015). Evolution of the Late Miocene Mediterranean–Atlantic gateways and their impact on regional and global environmental change. Earth-Science Reviews 150, 365–392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.08.007
Frasca, G., Gueydan, F. & Brun, J.-P. (2015). Structural record of Lower Miocene westward motion of the Alboran Domain in the Western Betics, Spain. Tectonophysics 657, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.05.017
Frizon de Lamotte, D., Fourdan, B., Leleu, S., Leparmentier, F. & de Clarens, P. (2015). Style of rifting and the stages of Pangea breakup. Tectonics 34(5), 1009–1029. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014TC003760
Garcia-Castellanos, D., Estrada, F., Jiménez-Munt, I., Gorini, C., Fernàndez, M., Vergés, J. & De Vicente, R. (2009). Catastrophic flood of the Mediterranean after the Messinian salinity crisis. Nature 462, 778–781. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08555
Garcia-Castellanos, D. et al. (2020). The Zanclean megaflood of the Mediterranean – Searching for independent evidence. Earth-Science Reviews 201, 103061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.103061
Gea, P.J., Negredo, A.M. & Mancilla, F. de L. (2023). The Gibraltar slab dynamics and its influence on past and present-day Alboran domain deformation: insights from thermo-mechanical numerical modelling. Frontiers in Earth Science 11, 995041. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2023.995041
GEBCO Compilation Group (2025). GEBCO 2025 Grid. Public domain; not for navigation. https://doi.org/10.5285/37c52e96-24ea-67ce-e063-7086abc05f29
Gutscher, M.-A., Malod, J., Rehault, J.-P., Contrucci, I., Klingelhoefer, F., Mendes-Victor, L. & Spakman, W. (2002). Evidence for active subduction beneath Gibraltar. Geology 30(12), 1071–1074. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<1071:EFASBG>2.0.CO;2
Gutscher, M.-A. et al. (2012). The Gibraltar subduction: A decade of new geophysical data. Tectonophysics 574–575, 72–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2012.08.038
Hoffmann, D., Mattey, D., Atkinson, T., Boyd, M. & Müller, W. (2023). A Gibraltar speleothem record of environment and regional climate for the last glacial period. EGU General Assembly 2023, abstract EGU23-12002. https://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU23/EGU23-12002.html
Hsü, K.J., Ryan, W.B.F. & Cita, M.B. (1973). Late Miocene desiccation of the Mediterranean. Nature 242, 240–244. https://doi.org/10.1038/242240a0
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Krijgsman, W., Hilgen, F.J., Raffi, I., Sierro, F.J. & Wilson, D.S. (1999). Chronology, causes and progression of the Messinian salinity crisis. Nature 400, 652–655. https://doi.org/10.1038/23231
Krijgsman, W. et al. (2018). The Gibraltar Corridor: Watergate of the Messinian Salinity Crisis. Marine Geology 403, 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2018.06.008
Krijgsman, W., Rohling, E.J., Palcu, D.V. et al. (2024). Causes and consequences of the Messinian salinity crisis. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment 5, 335–350. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-024-00533-1
Labails, C., Olivet, J.-L., Aslanian, D. & Roest, W.R. (2010). An alternative early opening scenario for the Central Atlantic Ocean. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 297, 355–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2010.06.024
Lambeck, K., Rouby, H., Purcell, A., Sun, Y. & Sambridge, M. (2014). Sea level and global ice volumes from the Last Glacial Maximum to the Holocene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111(43), 15296–15303. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1411762111
Loget, N. & Van Den Driessche, J. (2006). On the origin of the Strait of Gibraltar. Sedimentary Geology 188–189, 341–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2006.03.012
Lonergan, L. & White, N. (1997). Origin of the Betic-Rif mountain belt. Tectonics 16(3), 504–522. https://doi.org/10.1029/96TC03937
Manzi, V., Gennari, R., Hilgen, F., Krijgsman, W., Lugli, S., Roveri, M. & Sierro, F.J. (2013). Age refinement of the Messinian salinity crisis onset in the Mediterranean. Terra Nova 25, 315–322. https://doi.org/10.1111/ter.12038
Mattey, D., Lowry, D., Duffet, J., Fisher, R., Hodge, E. & Frisia, S. (2008). A 53 year seasonally resolved oxygen and carbon isotope record from a modern Gibraltar speleothem. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 269(1–2), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2008.01.051
Mattey, D.P., Atkinson, T.C., Barker, J.A., Fisher, R., Latin, J.-P., Durrell, R. & Ainsworth, M. (2016). Carbon dioxide, ground air and carbon cycling in Gibraltar karst. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 184, 88–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2016.01.041
Micallef, A. et al. (2018). Evidence of the Zanclean megaflood in the eastern Mediterranean Basin. Scientific Reports 8, 1078. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-19446-3
Muñiz, F., Cáceres, L.M., Rodríguez-Vidal, J. et al. (2019). Following the last Neanderthals: Mammal tracks in Late Pleistocene coastal dunes of Gibraltar (S Iberian Peninsula). Quaternary Science Reviews 217, 297–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.01.013
Natural Earth. 1:50m land polygons. Public domain. https://www.naturalearthdata.com/
Nocquet, J.-M. (2012). Present-day kinematics of the Mediterranean: a comprehensive overview of GPS results. Tectonophysics 579, 220–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2012.03.037
Danilewicz, C. (1983). The St Michael’s Cave System, Gibraltar. Proceedings of the Oxford University Cave Club 11. https://caving.materials.ox.ac.uk/procs/proc11/st_michaels.htm
Owen, E.F. & Rose, E.P.F. (1997). Early Jurassic brachiopods from Gibraltar, and their Tethyan affinities. Palaeontology 40(2), 497–513. https://www.palass.org/product/458
Platt, J.P. & Vissers, R.L.M. (1989). Extensional collapse of thickened continental lithosphere: a working hypothesis for the Alboran Sea and Gibraltar arc. Geology 17(6), 540–543. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1989)017<0540:ECOTCL>2.3.CO;2
Platt, J.P., Behr, W.M., Johanesen, K. & Williams, J.R. (2013). The Betic-Rif arc and its orogenic hinterland: a review. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 41, 313–357. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-050212-123951
Qing, H., Bosence, D.W.J. & Rose, E.P.F. (2001). Dolomitization by penesaline sea water in Early Jurassic peritidal platform carbonates, Gibraltar, western Mediterranean. Sedimentology 48(1), 153–163. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2001.00361.x
Rock of Gibraltar 4 m height grid, prepared by the project owner from public LiDAR (Gibraltar and Spain).
Rose, E.P.F. & Rosenbaum, M.S. (1991). A Field Guide to the Geology of Gibraltar. The Gibraltar Museum, 192 pp.
Rose, E.P.F. & Rosenbaum, M.S. (1991). The Rock of Gibraltar. Geology Today 7(3), 95–101. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2451.1991.tb00772.x
Rose, E.P.F. (2014). British pioneers of the geology of Gibraltar, Part 3: E. B. Bailey and Royal Engineers 1943 to 1953. Earth Sciences History 33(2), 294–332. https://doi.org/10.17704/eshi.33.2.41034242256m4671
Rose, E.P.F. (2016). The Rock of Gibraltar re-visited. Geology Today 32(3), 99–106. https://doi.org/10.1111/gto.12139
Rosenbaum, G., Lister, G.S. & Duboz, C. (2002). Reconstruction of the tectonic evolution of the western Mediterranean since the Oligocene. Journal of the Virtual Explorer 8, 107–130. https://doi.org/10.3809/jvirtex.2002.00053
Rosenbaum, G., Lister, G.S. & Duboz, C. (2002). Relative motions of Africa, Iberia and Europe during Alpine orogeny. Tectonophysics 359(1–2), 117–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00442-0
Roveri, M., Flecker, R., Krijgsman, W. et al. (2014). The Messinian Salinity Crisis: past and future of a great challenge for marine sciences. Marine Geology 352, 25–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2014.02.002
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Ruiz-Ortiz, P.A., Bosence, D.W.J., Rey, J., Nieto, L.M., Castro, J.M. & Molina, J.M. (2004). Tectonic control of facies architecture, sequence stratigraphy and drowning of a Liassic carbonate platform (Betic Cordillera, Southern Spain). Basin Research 16(2), 235–257. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2004.00231.x
Rodríguez-Vidal, J., Cáceres, L.M., Finlayson, J.C., Gracia, F.J. & Martínez-Aguirre, A. (2004). Neotectonics and shoreline history of the Rock of Gibraltar, southern Iberia. Quaternary Science Reviews 23(18–19), 2017–2029. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.02.008
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Rodríguez-Vidal, J., Finlayson, G., Finlayson, C. et al. (2013). Undrowning a lost world — The Marine Isotope Stage 3 landscape of Gibraltar. Geomorphology 203, 105–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.02.015
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Spakman, W., Chertova, M.V., van den Berg, A. & van Hinsbergen, D.J.J. (2018). Puzzling features of western Mediterranean tectonics explained by slab dragging. Nature Geoscience 11, 211–216. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-018-0066-z
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UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Gorham's Cave Complex (site 1500), inscribed 2016. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1500
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Visit Gibraltar. What to See (brochure): St Michael's Cave and its light show, "The Awakening". https://visitgibraltar.gi/uploads/Brochures/WHAT%20TO%20SEE%20(ENGLISH).pdf
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